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By 
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Tourism as a Global System
Tourism is a world phenomenon with a little more manageable, mega-sized forest. Its relevance is read off on a pervasive embossing force in social, political, cultural, and especially in economic terms. In fact, we are dealing with the fastest growing industry: The World Tourism Organization (WTO) estimated the related volume of 2007 to 904 million people a year who were traveling as tourists and 855 billion US dollars ausgaben.1 you support as a Global System with an estimated 100 million workers who are in the service of a modern leisure and entertainment industry. For the satisfaction of tourism needs of mobile individuals, groups and masses a globally networked, highly complex structure of it focused supplier provides structures. Tourism polarized, since it's there: He reveals numerous positions between total agreement to enrich the realization of being with recovery claim and critical rejection due to the adoption of systematic effects caused by damage entertainment dumbing down and preventable Umweltzerstörung.1
In the German-speaking world was formed since the 1920s a strongly directed to business and economic problems early Tourist doctrine, which was replaced in the 1960s by an ever expanding tourism research. It gives many disciplines room, the subject area of tourism (or partial aspects thereof) subject-specific approach. One speaks today of Tourism Research, thinks it a multidisciplinary research network therefore come within the meaning of an open "cross-sectional discipline" 2, certainly including possible applications. What is lacking is a holistic tourism research. What is present, however, are countless subject treatments, case studies, approaches, theories and perspectives in individual disciplines, among which are especially economics, geography, psychology, architecture, ecology, sociology, political science and medicine to zählen.2
After an economic-operational scientifically and institutionally consolidated Tourismuslehre3 is cultural studies approaches, Gesamtdarstellungen4 and historical Beitragsleistungen5 series a striking late. Cultural and social history as well as the historic tourist Anthropologie6 problem areas open though for some Zeit7, but are perceived differently in their scope from economic and social science research. Here, you can not ignore the historical conditions and developments of travel habits and leisure styles, if you want to understand the tourist manifestations of presence. This refers not only to object-related terms and concepts, but also on subject-specific knowledge objectives. To conduct historical research tourism in the context of historical science is not congruent with the project, a history of tourism (or parts thereof) to schreiben.83
This paper assigns to the second access. He sees himself as an attempt to overview presentation, which accommodates classical processes, stages, types and trends of modern tourism in order to classify them in the light of their historical development. General consensus is to understand tourism as a phenomenon of modernity and to set its formative stages in the context of civil society since about the middle of the 18th century. This includes but is historically older, not "related" from travel types, is at least reminiscent of the here. Not every travel is also tourist travel; mobility has many modalities. It makes sense to travel as a means to an end (eg, expulsion, migration, war, religion, commerce) and travel for its own sake in the touristy encoded meaning (education, recreation, leisure, recreation, socializing, entertainment) to unterscheiden.4 is categorically
Early forms of travel and travel types
Recreational and educational trips embossed already existed in ancient times and previously in Egyptian PharaonenreichSakkaraGizehDelphiHerodot (around 485-424 v. Chr) Egypt Africa Black MeerMesopotamienItalien5
The Roman antiquity helped the travel and selected forms of leave to thrust. The travel became increasingly due to the infrastructural development in importance. 300 n. Chr. There was a road network with 90,000 km overland connections and 200,000 km smaller country roads available, which also served the passenger next to troop and cargo transport. Benefited primarily wealthy education and leisure travelers. Since the first century AD was "a veritable tourist industry, organized individual and group travel, all information given and for accommodation and meals provided" 11: The noble Romans sought in summer recreation in the resorts in the south or lingered on the beaches of Egypt and Greece Roman Empire 6
The mobility of the feudal society of the Middle Ages formed their own travel types with values that were tailored to various groups, such as merchants, students, soldiers, pilgrims, journeymen, beggars, vagrants and robbers. Since the 12th century hiking traveling scholars won several times in importance. Walking to famous educational institutions in Paris France Montpellier England Oxford Bologna 7
As a kind of counterpart to travel embossed life traveling student training can be the wandering years of journeymen lane. Craft Hiking, Hiking journeyman, journeyman years or fraternity, as the phenomenon is also called, is part of the tradition and committed to craft guilds and is attested since the mid-14th century. Since the 16th century, the guilds prescribed the European 8
Precursor of modern tourism
As early form and precursor of modern tourism, the Grand Tour appears 9
From England the tours led for example to France and Italy. Visit the ancient sites of Italy were the highlights of the trip, but also large cities in other countries were visited: London Amsterdam Madrid Munich Vienna Prague 10
Training in dancing, riding and fencing, acquisition and improvement of language skills, visits to university courses, Tie social and economic connections, practice in befitting manner and in facing manners - all that stood on the nobles of the program during the Reise.17
The destinations were therefore mainly shaped by political, social and vocational subjects within the noble object, but closed art, leisure and amusements a. With members of other classes and social groups, the nobles hardly came into contact, it already caused social control by the companion. It was a private statism: Social strongly normalized, exclusive, elitist and aligned to their own secure control. Two things are important for the history of tourist travel: the destinations and the encounter with foreign countries and sights, interestingly, at the interface of a supposed cultural divide between North and South: 11
They [the nobles] touring Italy in the consciousness of its own political strength and organizational effectiveness, economic success and technological progress. At the same time in admiration of the cultural and artistic achievements of Italy and its sublime and refined social graces. The trip to Italy is to look back in a level judged to be full of culture, to their core values, they still are based. The new world pays tribute to the old world their respect - a basic pattern of tourism, the found again in the voyages of Romans to Greece or in Europe travel by Americans ist.18
Educational tours of the (upper) middle class highlight tourism historically an insightful stage since the Enlightenment to the 19th century. The travels of the educated middle class were prototypically modeled by prominent poets and philosophers, among them Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) Charles Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755) Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832) Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729-1781) Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803) industry and Technology oriented industrialization travel Germany 12
The early, pre-emergence or phase of modern tourism is generally angesetzt.19 between the mid-18th century to the first third of the 19th century In this phase tourist traveling was initially reserved for a minority of wealthy aristocrats and educated citizens. For them, travel was an expressive status symbols, which represented power, status, money and leisure. Two features emerge: First, educational motives are increasingly overshadowed by entertainment interests, to try other wealthy citizens, to acquire the noble and bourgeois travel habit. Thus, the nobility was forced he wanted a mixing with aufrückenden citizens escape, other destinations and Mußestile to exklusivieren.20 Evidence of that he sat again on swimming trips and settled in opulent luxury resorts with casinos emerging here. At the center of social life, receptions, balls, horse racing, adventure games and now stood eg in Baden-BadenKarlsbadVichyCheltenhamBrightonCôte d'Azur Madeira Malta 13
The constitution of the modern tourism
The term "introduction phase" is the total of all developments, structures and innovations of modern tourism between the first third of the 19th century to about 1950 bezeichnet.21 This begins again even with a so-called "initial phase", which until 1915 dauert.22 In this period is initiated a comprehensive process. It is characterized by a prototypical boom bourgeois travel culture and their formation, popularization and diversification. He prepares as mass tourism holidays according to modern leisure before embossing. The development takes place episodic and based on a series of changed social conditions and factors. Among the root causes of this weighty striking upturn include unquestionably progressive industrialization, population growth, urbanization and transport revolution, but also the improvement of social and labor relations, increased real incomes and, be derived therefrom, changes Bedürfnisstrukturen.23 14
Already at the beginning of the 19th century achieved the development of the Central European transportation and travel Scotland Switzerland Lake Geneva 15
Although the railroad was not created to promote tourism, but made this their facilities since the mid-19th century advantage. She is rightly regarded as an obstetrician of the early modern Massentourismus.25 It remains to be noted that tourist travel war.26 initially reserved privileged citizens circles These trips functioned "as a form of bourgeois self-therapy, the disentanglement of the bourgeois self from its shadowy existence in the old aristocratic world ", so to modernity could make a model of experience to erkunden.27 Until middle and working holiday, should still take several decades. They had to initially with day trips by train and ship content, to temporarily escape the cities. Support groups of bourgeois tourism were taken summarily, "the industrialists and the merchant families, the civil servant training citizens in public administration, schools and universities, to the new 'professions' of writers, journalists, lawyers, artists out these first steps of can do caste society. "28 Since the 1860s herald a popularization suggest. Traveling is a kind of popular movement and response to the need for recreation broad layers in the course of progressive industrialization and urbanization. 16
Tailored to civil needs for travel and vacations, some steering instruments, innovations and forms of leave for the 19th century can be identified. Of increasing importance are travel guides and reports in the form of travel literature: a not to be underestimated Textsorte29 that already in the 18th century and had precursors ("prepared") on tourist destinations and perceptions points. Exemplary had about Letters on Switzerland (1784-1785) of the Göttingen professor Christoph Meiners (1747-1810) Heinrich Heidegger (1738-1823) Karl Baedeker (1801-1859) John Murray (1808-1892) HollandBelgienRheinland 17
Tourist mass awakening in the 19th century
Was re-created from the 1840s organized group or society travel, arrived at the principle of inclusive arrangements for application for relief of travelers. Thomas Cook (1808-1892) 18 Leicester
Cook's pioneering role in the context of a growing mass tourism is recognized to be read later opened travel agencies in Germany, especially with the name Rominger (Stuttgart Wroclaw Carl rods (1833-1911) Palestine Theodor Fontane (1819-1898) 19
The tourist development of the Alps Albrecht von Haller (1708-1777) Horace-Bénédict de Saussure (1740-1799) Alps 20
The importance of continental founded Alpine clubs as "pacemaker" is significant. We kicked off significantly, which opened in London Alpine Club (1857), where the Austrian Berlin 21
The holiday practice in the interwar period
The tourism development of the 20th century reveals various periodization, consistent and plausible is the delimitation of a "development phase" between 1915 and 1945.41 It has to do with the tourist stagnation by the First World War, but also with transitional developments that are systemically important. This was preceded by a marked upward trend, the number of tourist overnight stays increased but in Germany from 1871 to 1913 by about 471 percent, a good seven times faster than the former Wohnbevölkerung.42 Among them was a majority of civil and soon also medium-sized leisure, which many of the newly opened seaside resort on the North Sea-Baltic 22
Motivlich dominated in travel and holidays after 1900 the regeneration, but will claim and recreation concept based only on mental work - they reached next needle, forming citizens and high officials now also entrepreneurs, merchants, middle officers, employees and Lehrer.44 This has without doubt with do the collectively-statutory holiday scheme. In most European countries existed before 1900, no fixed holiday entitlement: Multi-day and salaried exposing the work was legally established only after the First World War, apart from a few precursors. In Germany the Reich Civil Service Act in 1873 made the beginning. It was initially given only to officials during holidays for other staff until the First World War still remained the exception and only then was possible in Austria with the workers Holidays Act since 1919. A similar development in Switzerland: Holiday for officials of the federal government were in 1879 regulated by law but anchored until 1913. As regards the granting of vacation in the industry, so this development took place much later. As granted by 100 factories in Switzerland 11.9 percent of employees paid holiday in 1910, 1944, there were already 87.9 Prozent.45 The holiday entitlement, as it is now defined in the standard employment contract, is an achievement of the 20th century. In Switzerland, the legal holiday is not standardized. The development was a cantonal basis, the issued since the 1930s, collective agreements are important; one week paid work exposure was the usual measure. Only after 1945, the most cantons then expanded their holiday laws to the entire workforce. Germany adopted in 1963 a general holiday legislation. 23
An innovative opening to another form of vacation, which should include families with children, brought the "summer". First documented in 1836, the term from the 1870s is a medium-sized holiday practice, the summer time to look during recovery in the country, almost as a counterpart to bathing trip. The summer can be understood "as an extended over several weeks series of day trips, where for the time the apartment is reversed in the city with a simple inn or private rooms in a rural area, often only a few hours by train from the residence away. It is used mainly the rest of the family, especially the children, not participating in a costly entertainment premises or at social events "46th A summer with the family petty bourgeois and workers could not afford the time being, while bourgeois milieu the Sunday excursion to 1914 could become a habit, in stages over the whole weekend and finally a few days ausgedehnt.47 24
After the crisis years of the First World War the summer to fit a simple, healthy and economic recovery stays on which since the 1920s could now participate also lower employees and workers. The love of nature and the city of Humanists for simplicity of rural life, preferably experienced in beautiful regions of the Central Mountains seem to refer to your own German variety of summer freshness that is of stays in skandinavischenrussischen 25
Attachment to the resort once elected, family connection with real social relationship between the townspeople and the country people, family-like relations between the landlord and the summer visitors at the inn; it hardly merit competitive pursuit or narrow thinking of hosts; courteous-serving behavior of the host against the townspeople carry regarded as superior; course of the day many trips; depending on the financial ability to was anxious to kaufen.48 a summer house
The presence of summer visitors left first character infrastructural Touristisierung, about the marking of trails or the expansion of inns, refuges, forest restaurants, observation towers and amusements. 26
New impulses, increasing intensity of travel and mass-based holiday practice brought National Socialism in Germany from 1933 to 1939. The development overcame essentially a previously dominant bourgeois travel practice through the creation of a social or popular tourism in the form of a state-organized holiday and leisure style. That this tourism in service of the political system and the Nazi ideology was, hardly needs to be emphasized. Stage planning and graduated usage pattern of a new tourism to fall - a textbook example of the political Availability for the attention of a power regime with all that that implies. It comes to mass tourism in the Third Reich.49 tourism Historically, characterizes the guided holiday with democratization claim for a broad working class, the "people", a. Hitler wanted, "that the worker is granted sufficient leave and that everything is done to make him leave, and the rest of his free time to a true recovery. 'I want this because I want to be a nervous strong people, because no one but a people that keeps its nerves, you can make truly great politics ''. 50 27
This project "National Socialist community power through joy" was implemented by the 1933 created recreational organization (KDF) and an official "travel, hiking, holiday" (RWU), subject to both the party. To avoid any resistance at the social transformation, spoke to the workers for the time being three to six days of vacation a year. Since 1937 the majority of wage earners was entitled to a six- to twelve-day Jahresfreizeit51 and could benefit from new (very cheap) holiday offers and travel: walking, train and cruises with room and board secured a lot of popularity wave. She reflected in statistical record developments, in an unprecedented travel boom down - from 2.3 million trips in 1934, the figures increased to five million in 1935, 9.6 million 1937 to 10.3 million in 1938.52 In the six years before the war were the KdF 43 million trips, short trips and hikes sold incomparably cheap, about seven days Norway 28
The mass standard with a staatsideologisch consistently used "national community" traveling KdF tourists kept to themselves and were met with bourgeois travelers to make places and on cruises often displeasure. All in all, it can be generalized that the KdF movement to the development of mass tourism-serial traveling and has thus contributed to a certain democratization of the same deal, but this process occurred at the expense of the masses or for the benefit of the Nazi regime. The success of the KdF trips based on the interplay of three factors: Pensions and money were no longer indispensable prerequisites for holiday participations; the trips could be implemented with low prices, and the organization had a tightly knit efficient distribution network, which was received by the workers and not not forget umgekehrt.54 is the fact that the private German tourism industry at the same time reported a uncommon prosperity, it was with the expansion of hostels and camping sites, either with medium holidaymakers who "gradually returned to more upmarket forms of tourism" 55th With the state KdF tourism, as a conclusion, "the Germans were not yet 'traveling people' become one, but the Nazi dictatorship had embarked on the road, the - delayed by the collapse and reconstruction - after all, should lead them ".56 29
Tourism expansion and globalization
A final phase includes the developments in tourism since the post-war period to the present, and will depend on this angle as "high phase" 57 or as "enforcement and consolidation phase" 58th The totality of all expansion and innovation processes, tourism and leisure social movements Holiday Styles deserves this labeling rightly constituted but the tourism in the last few decades globally relevant industry and Signet of modern industrial nations par excellence. Tourism reveals boundlessness: spatially, temporally, socially and culturally. This is his Generalnenner.59 consensus exists that the unprecedented boom since the post-war period of economic growth, to technical progress, at a highly competitive competition and the creation of ever new destinations and forms bound bleibt.60 The increasing leisure mobility as an extension to broad strata of society must be seen against this background. It relies on various boom factors, including the increase in wealth with growing incomes), urbanization, the explosive expansion of the transport and communication network 30
However, said tourism recovery was only slowly after the war and was initially focused on internal targets in Germany, Austria and Switzerland. It was not until 1953, the West German tourist accommodation capacity again reached the pre-war level before the intensity of travel from the 1960s massively increased: from 28 percent (1962) to 58 percent (1980), about 65 percent (1987) to 70.8 percent (1992) in West Germany 31
Since the 1960s, is the "heyday" of European tourism one: Commercial tour operators, organizers of major events and eventually transform travel groups, economic-based and innovation-strategic market economy following, the competition field by always cheaper expectant holiday deals towards mass tourism, with new styles and destinations. Here the tourism produces its own orders with Sekundärsystemen.66 It comes to the opening of many travel agencies and tourism organizations and tourism to the store, as the examples for Neckermann Germany since 1963 and Jelmoli for Switzerland show since 1972. For strong shear effect caused the continued shift from bus and train travel on the transport by car and caravan and finally to the international air traffic. The charter tourism occupied thriving market segments and established himself with cheap offers for trips abroad. The first foreign tourism led to neighboring countries, later followed by more distant destinations - for Germany it concerned Austria and Switzerland, then Italy and Spain 32
However, the former departure intensity within European countries remains to differentiate. This must be done with views of frequencies, travel forms, trends and destinations, as evidenced by countless statistics and market research, the results of which have close social and cultural traditions travel. Mid-1970s were traveling in Scandinavia, for example, 70 to 80 percent of the adult population each year, while the percentage in GroßbritannienNiederlandenMittelmeerländernAlpenländernSt. MoritzZermattLechProvenceTirolVenedig Salzburg Adriatic Kenya Majorca Maldives Sylt Rhodes 33
However, the quantitative increase of tourists flows reveals a social and a structurally-content expansion, the more comes into play since the 1990s. Holiday and travel open for more of the population; it no longer benefit only the "traditional" tourists, so officials, employees, academics and part of the workers. On tourism system now also take part rural residents and age- and gender-specific social groups (women, singles, seniors), 69 which can be read on special, tailored to the specific needs do. Thus, a central shopping signs of modern tourism is included, the diversification and specialization in the context of globalization 34
This view is the one the institution "holiday club" against, in the way it the "Club Méditerannée" (1955), the "Club Soleil" (1966), the "Robinson Club" (1970), the "Club-aldiana" (1973) and other clubs with their holiday vacation formulas and philosophies practiced very successfully. Secondly, learn artificial holiday worlds in the form of amusement and theme parks increasingly important: 71 Disneyland, Europa Park, Port Aventura, Sun City, etc. recorded annual flow of visitors in the tens of millions and are still always on the rise. Here interested postmodern processed pseudo-events simulation worlds and hyper realities, their artificiality by looking from the tourists and adventure, fun, game and competition as a fun, action and event is internalized. Worlds of Experience come and gehen.72 Tourism History, there is a remarkable, because systemic shift: The traditional symbol tourist consumption (sights, alternative worlds) is extended or for the benefit of a fun-loaded entertainment culture degraded as a piece of new "world experience". This has a global traits and spatial limits by mutation on the way to mundialization with own slowly exchangeable forms and Erlebnisbereichen73 more. What developed this innovation potential next structure element remains to be seen. 35
Ueli Gyr, Zurich
appendix
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